Vocabulary শব্দভাণ্ডার

to make something less severe — measures to mitigate the effects of flooding

the reduction of a resource until it runs low — the depletion of groundwater reserves

the total emissions caused by a person or activity — reduce your carbon footprint

able to continue without exhausting resources — sustainable farming practices

the destruction of the places species live in — habitat loss driven by urban expansion

naturally replenished — renewable sources such as wind and solar

the subjects taught — a broad curriculum covering both arts and sciences

memorising without understanding — rote learning produces exam results but little insight

training for a specific job — vocational qualifications in engineering

the cost of being taught — rising tuition fees deter applicants from poorer families

the level a student reaches — the attainment gap between richer and poorer pupils

continuing study through adulthood — employers increasingly expect lifelong learning

replacing human work with machines — automation has displaced routine clerical work

no longer useful — skills that become obsolete within a decade

output per hour worked — remote work raised productivity in several studies

the gap between those with and without reliable access — the digital divide widened during school closures

close monitoring — workplace surveillance software

make more efficient by removing steps — streamline the approval process

involving a lot of sitting — a sedentary lifestyle raises cardiovascular risk

the average length of life — life expectancy has risen by a decade since 1980

designed to stop illness before it starts — preventative care costs less than treatment

a rising proportion of older people — an ageing population strains pension systems

an unfair difference — regional disparities in access to specialists

general health and contentment — measures of national wellbeing

substantial, considerable, significant, extensive

beneficial, valuable, effective, worthwhile

detrimental, damaging, counterproductive, harmful

a considerable proportion, a substantial minority, the majority

in recent decades, at present, increasingly

in my view, I would argue, it seems to me

Longer sentences are often defended as a deterrent to serious crime.

Prisons should focus on rehabilitation rather than punishment alone.

Petty crime rose sharply in the districts with the highest unemployment.

Most residents are law-abiding and simply want safer streets.

Increased surveillance has raised concerns about privacy.

Nearly half of those released reoffend within two years.

Social media platforms have been criticised for spreading misinformation.

Sensationalism sells papers but distorts public understanding.

Public broadcasters are expected to remain impartial.

Recommendation algorithms can trap users in an echo chamber.

Excessive screen time has been linked to poor sleep in adolescents.

The report lost credibility once its funding source became public.

Rising rents have squeezed households' disposable income.

The cost of living has outpaced wage growth for a decade.

Governments subsidise public transport to keep fares affordable.

Tax breaks create an incentive to invest in cleaner technology.

The scheme aims to make housing affordable for first-time buyers.

Campaigners argue that a living wage would reduce reliance on benefits.

the uncontrolled spread of a city into the surrounding countryside — urban sprawl swallows farmland and lengthens commutes

the movement of people from the countryside to cities — rural-urban migration has swelled the population of Dhaka

having a lot of people living in a small area — one of the most densely populated cities in the world

too many people living or travelling in one space — chronic overcrowding in inner-city flats

not enough homes for the people who need them — a chronic housing shortage pushes up rents

the basic systems a place needs, such as roads, water and power — investment in transport infrastructure

useful local facilities such as shops, parks and clinics — residents have easy access to local amenities

parks and grassy areas in a town — the loss of green space in fast-growing cities

a tall building with many floors — high-rise blocks replaced the old terraced streets

improving a run-down part of a city — an urban regeneration scheme for the old docks

wealthier people moving into a poorer area and raising costs — gentrification has driven out long-standing residents

unable to afford something because prices have risen — young people are being priced out of the housing market

someone buying their first home — schemes to help first-time buyers onto the property ladder

a crowded, poor-quality area of a city — millions live in slums with no clean water

the state of having nowhere to live — rising homelessness in major cities

deciding how a town or city should develop — poor urban planning leads to congestion

the central, often poorer, area of a large city — inner-city schools face particular challenges

residential areas on the edge of a city — families moving out to the suburbs

the area around a city where many commuters live — towns in the London commuter belt

a person who rents a home from a landlord — tenants deserve protection from unfair eviction

the cost of buying homes and land — soaring property prices in the capital

land previously used for industry that can be built on again — building on brownfield sites protects the countryside

general wellbeing and standard of living — a better quality of life in smaller towns

homes rented at low cost from councils or housing associations — a long waiting list for social housing

a district made up mainly of homes — a quiet residential area away from the main road

roads blocked by too much traffic — traffic congestion costs the economy billions each year

a fee for driving into a busy city centre — the congestion charge cut traffic in central London

buses, trains and trams available to everyone — investment in reliable public transport

the regular journey between home and work — a two-hour daily commute

the busiest time of day on roads and trains — rush-hour traffic on the ring road

having a private car — car ownership has risen sharply in Asian cities

gases released by cars, buses and lorries — cutting vehicle emissions in city centres

close a street to traffic so only people on foot can use it — the council pedestrianised the high street

part of a road reserved for bicycles — segregated cycle lanes make cycling safer

preventing traffic accidents and injuries — a national road safety campaign

deaths caused by accidents or violence — road fatalities fell by a third

the connected system of roads, railways and routes — an integrated transport network

fast passenger trains on dedicated lines — high-speed rail can replace many domestic flights

a flight over a relatively short distance — proposals to ban short-haul flights

the price of a journey on public transport — rail fares rose faster than inflation

a ticket for unlimited journeys over a period — an annual season ticket

a vehicle powered by a battery — incentives to switch to electric vehicles

several people travelling together in one car — car-sharing schemes reduce the number of vehicles on the road

traffic so heavy that nothing can move — the city centre was in gridlock for hours

a way of travelling — the bicycle is the cheapest means of transport

easy to reach or use, including for disabled people — making stations accessible to wheelchair users

a scheme where drivers park outside a town and take a bus into the centre — a new park and ride site

how long a trip takes — the new line will cut journey times by half

a charge for using a road or bridge — drivers pay a toll to cross the bridge

the growing connection of economies and cultures worldwide — globalisation has lifted millions out of poverty

a company operating in many countries — multinational corporations dominate the retail sector

cultures around the world becoming more alike — fears of cultural homogenisation driven by global brands

paying an outside company, often abroad, to do work — outsourcing manufacturing to countries with lower labour costs

trade between countries without tariffs or quotas — a free trade agreement between the two countries

a tax on imported goods — the government imposed tariffs on imported steel

a situation in which countries rely on one another — the economic interdependence of nations

large numbers of people visiting the same places — mass tourism has transformed the coastline

more visitors than a place can cope with — Venice has introduced a fee to tackle overtourism

travel that aims to protect nature and support local people — ecotourism can help fund conservation

a place that attracts visitors — Cox's Bazar is a popular tourist destination

away from places most people visit — villages off the beaten track

the businesses and jobs in a particular area — tourism gives a boost to the local economy

income, especially of a government or business — tourism revenue fell during the pandemic

a place protected for its historical or cultural value — a UNESCO World Heritage Site

sharing ideas and customs between countries — student exchanges encourage cultural exchange

confusion felt on moving to an unfamiliar culture — many students experience culture shock in their first term abroad

gradually weaken or destroy — local traditions are being eroded by global brands

the emigration of highly skilled people — the brain drain of doctors to richer countries

people who move abroad to find work — the contribution of migrant workers to the economy

money sent home by people working abroad — remittances account for a large share of national income

the world seen as one community linked by technology — the internet has turned the world into a global village

travel over long distances, especially by air — the environmental cost of long-haul travel

hotels, restaurants and related businesses — jobs in the hospitality industry

carry out a formal study — researchers conducted research into sleep patterns

an important new discovery — a major breakthrough in cancer treatment

an idea that is tested by research — the experiment was designed to test this hypothesis

evidence based on observation or experiment — there is little empirical evidence to support the claim

evaluation of research by other experts before publication — the study has not yet undergone peer review

the results of a study — the findings suggest that diet plays a key role

perform scientific tests — experiments were carried out on laboratory mice

the number of people or items in a study — the sample size was too small to draw firm conclusions

participants in a study who do not receive the treatment — results were compared with a control group

a connection between two things — a strong correlation between income and life expectancy

repeat a study to check its results — other scientists were unable to replicate the findings

money provided for scientific study — cuts to research funding

worries about whether something is morally right — genetic engineering raises serious ethical concerns

having genes altered artificially — the debate over genetically modified crops

using animals in scientific experiments — a ban on animal testing for cosmetics

the most advanced — cutting-edge medical technology

to be the first to develop something — the team pioneered a new vaccine technique

investigating outer space — public spending on space exploration

general agreement among scientists — the scientific consensus on climate change

gather information for analysis — data were collected over a five-year period

propose an explanation — Darwin put forward the theory of natural selection

not leading to a firm result — the evidence remains inconclusive

a factor that can change in an experiment — researchers controlled for other variables such as age

in a controlled scientific setting — the drug was only tested under laboratory conditions

parents and their children living together — the nuclear family has largely replaced the extended family

relatives beyond parents and children, such as grandparents — growing up in an extended family

a family with only one parent at home — the number of single-parent families has grown

the way a child is raised — she had a strict upbringing

raise a child — he was brought up by his grandparents

a person others look up to and copy — parents are a child's first role models

differences in attitudes between young and old — the generation gap is most visible in attitudes to technology

competition between brothers and sisters — sibling rivalry is common in large families

dividing time well between job and personal life — long hours damage work-life balance

looking after children while parents work — the high cost of childcare

a home where both partners earn — dual-income households are now the norm

the number of births per 1,000 people — a falling birth rate

the age at which people stop working — plans to raise the retirement age to 68

regular money paid to retired people — the state pension

a place where elderly people live and are looked after — moving a parent into a care home

older family members — many adults care for elderly relatives

people who rely on someone for money — a worker with three dependants

involving different generations — intergenerational households

take care of someone — I often look after my younger cousins

resemble an older family member — I take after my father in temperament

with members who support each other closely — a close-knit family

parents taking part in their children's lives — parental involvement in schooling improves results

having little contact with other people — social isolation among the elderly

someone who looks after an ill, disabled or elderly person — unpaid carers save the health service billions

traditional beliefs about family life — a decline in traditional family values

put a plan into action — the government implemented the policy nationwide

a law or set of laws — new legislation to protect consumers

an official rule, or the control of an activity by rules — stricter regulation of the banking sector

officially forbid something — impose a ban on single-use plastics

money spent by the government — cuts in public spending

officially give money for a purpose — allocate more funds to mental health services

public money raised through taxes — a waste of taxpayers' money

a system where the government provides social support — the welfare state was built after the war

given only to people below a certain income — means-tested benefits

required by law or rules — compulsory military service

make sure a law is obeyed — the law is rarely enforced

make someone responsible for their actions — politicians must be held accountable

complicated official procedures — excessive bureaucracy slows down small businesses

unnecessary official rules and paperwork — cut red tape for start-ups

the people or organisations in power — the local authorities closed the road

involving ordinary people rather than leaders — a grassroots campaign for cleaner air

what most people think — public opinion turned against the war

treat as most important — the government should prioritise primary healthcare

make a determined effort to deal with a problem — measures to tackle youth unemployment

an answer that works for many years — education is the only long-term solution

government involvement in an area — state intervention in the housing market

controlling what can be published or broadcast — internet censorship

officially introduce a tax — impose a tax on sugary drinks

all the people entitled to vote — politicians must win over the electorate

the traditions, buildings and art a society inherits — protecting the nation's cultural heritage

the feeling of belonging to a culture — language is central to cultural identity

keep customs alive — festivals help preserve local traditions

music, dance and drama performed live — funding for the performing arts

painting, sculpture and drawing — a degree in fine art

money given to support the arts — cuts to arts funding

concerned with beauty — the building has little aesthetic value

an outstanding work of art — a masterpiece of Mughal architecture

a public display of art or objects — an exhibition of contemporary photography

the price of entering a museum or event — museums should abolish admission charges

belonging naturally to a place — the rights of indigenous communities

a language at risk of dying out — efforts to record endangered languages

traditional music of a community — Baul songs are a form of folk music

skill in making things by hand — the fine craftsmanship of Nakshi Kantha

accepted by or familiar to most people — the band moved into the mainstream

music, films and media enjoyed by most people — the influence of popular culture on young people

a range of different cultures in one place — London's cultural diversity

belonging to the present time — contemporary art

businesses based on creativity, such as film and design — the creative industries employ millions

understanding and enjoyment of art — schools should foster an appreciation of the arts

famous and respected — a renowned sculptor

a famous building or feature that is easy to recognise — the bridge has become a national landmark

running something mainly for profit — the commercialisation of traditional festivals

the feeling of being part of a group — shared festivals create a sense of belonging

reliable access to enough affordable food — climate change threatens food security

a basic food eaten regularly — rice is the staple food in Bangladesh

the amount of a crop produced from an area — fertilisers have boosted crop yields

food grown without artificial chemicals — demand for organic produce

chemicals used to kill insects that damage crops — overuse of pesticides harms wildlife

a substance added to soil to help plants grow — chemical fertilisers pollute rivers

farming that produces as much as possible from the land — intensive farming has degraded the soil

farm animals such as cows and goats — livestock farming produces methane

supplying water to crops — irrigation systems in dry regions

a long period without rain — the drought destroyed half the harvest

extreme shortage of food across a region — the famine of 1974

poor health caused by not eating the right food — child malnutrition remains widespread

food changed by industrial methods and additives — a diet high in processed food

being seriously overweight — rising rates of childhood obesity

eating the right amounts of different foods — a balanced diet and regular exercise

the distance food travels from farm to consumer — imported fruit has high food miles

obtained from nearby producers — restaurants serving locally sourced ingredients

edible food that is thrown away — a third of all food is lost or wasted

a diet consisting mainly of plants — switching to a plant-based diet

topsoil being washed or blown away — deforestation accelerates soil erosion

land suitable for growing crops — the loss of arable land to housing

the gathering of crops, or the crops gathered — a poor harvest after the floods

able to produce everything you need — the country is now self-sufficient in rice

the cost of food — rising food prices hit the poorest hardest

coal, oil and gas — our dependence on fossil fuels

limited and eventually running out — oil is a finite resource

devices that turn sunlight into electricity — installing solar panels on rooftops

a group of wind turbines generating electricity — an offshore wind farm

electricity generated by flowing water — a hydroelectric dam

energy from splitting atoms — the debate over nuclear power

the amount of energy used — household energy consumption

using less energy to do the same job — improving the energy efficiency of homes

a building where electricity is generated — a coal-fired power station

a period when the electricity supply stops — frequent power cuts in summer

gases released that trap heat in the atmosphere — cut greenhouse gas emissions by half

gradually stop using something — phase out coal by 2035

the shift from fossil fuels to cleaner sources — the cost of the energy transition

producing no net carbon emissions — the company aims to be carbon neutral by 2030

balancing emissions produced with emissions removed — a net zero target

money paid for gas and electricity — soaring energy bills

the network that distributes electricity across a country — feeding solar power into the national grid

produce electricity — wind turbines generate electricity

material that stops heat escaping — better insulation cuts heating costs

energy from sources other than fossil fuels — investment in alternative energy

a tax on the carbon content of fuels — a carbon tax would make polluters pay

reliable access to affordable energy — imports threaten energy security

fuel made from plants or organic waste — biofuels compete with food crops for land

depending too much on something — over-reliance on imported gas

confidence that you will not lose your job — temporary contracts offer little job security

the pleasure you get from your work — salary matters less than job satisfaction

the percentage of people without work — the youth unemployment rate

work based on short-term or freelance jobs — delivery riders in the gig economy

working for yourself rather than an employer — nearly a fifth of workers are self-employed

someone who starts their own business — young entrepreneurs need access to finance

a newly established business — a tech start-up

chances of success in a career — a degree improves career prospects

moving to a higher position at work — she was given a promotion after two years

the environment and terms people work in — poor working conditions in garment factories

working from home or away from the office — the shift to remote working

being able to choose when you work — flexible working hours help parents

workers with training and expertise — investors look for a skilled workforce

not enough workers available — a labour shortage in the care sector

lose your job because it is no longer needed — 200 staff were made redundant

exhaustion caused by long-term stress at work — burnout among junior doctors

the difference between men's and women's average pay — closing the gender pay gap

a company's duty to act ethically — investing in local schools as part of corporate social responsibility

the difference between cost and selling price — supermarkets operate on thin profit margins

how much people want to buy — falling consumer demand

a company's portion of total sales — the firm has lost market share to rivals

learning skills while working — apprentices receive on-the-job training

a short period working to learn about a job — students gain work experience in local firms

move up to more senior jobs — she climbed the career ladder quickly

a temporary job to gain experience — an unpaid internship at a law firm

talking to people in person — technology has reduced face-to-face communication

the ability to get on with and work with others — employers value strong interpersonal skills

communicating through posture and gestures — confident body language

websites for connecting with others — young people spend hours on social networking sites

look directly at someone while talking — make eye contact with the examiner

communicate an idea or feeling — the photograph conveys a sense of loss

able to express ideas clearly — an articulate speaker

a failure to understand correctly — the dispute arose from a simple misunderstanding

stay in contact — video calls help families keep in touch

stop being in contact — I lost touch with most of my school friends

difficulty communicating because of different languages — overcome the language barrier

a shared language used by speakers of different languages — English has become the lingua franca of business

able to speak a language easily and well — fluent in three languages

able to speak two languages well — children raised in bilingual homes

able to make people agree or act — a persuasive argument

helpful criticism meant to improve something — teachers should give constructive criticism

make others understand your idea — he struggled to get his point across

sending real-time text messages online — instant messaging has replaced phone calls for many

the ability to use digital technology effectively — teaching digital literacy in primary schools

the attitude shown in speech or writing — the tone of the email was rather formal

giving talks to an audience — a fear of public speaking

listening carefully and responding thoughtfully — active listening builds trust

information passed on by people talking — the restaurant grew through word of mouth

stay informed about something — it is hard to keep up with the news

increase quickly by a large amount — sales rose sharply in the final quarter

fall gradually and consistently — the birth rate declined steadily over the period

rise and fall irregularly — prices fluctuated between $40 and $60

stop rising or falling and stay the same — the figure levelled off at around 30%

reach the highest point — visitor numbers reached a peak of 2 million in 2015

reach the lowest point — unemployment hit a low of 3% in 2019

stay at the same level — the figure remained stable at 15%

a very large and sudden rise — a dramatic increase in online sales

a small, temporary fall — a slight dip in 2008 before a recovery

make up a particular amount or share — cars accounted for 60% of journeys

the share of a total — the proportion of students living at home

the number relating to a category — the figure for Japan was considerably lower

in the order mentioned — France and Spain recorded 20% and 15% respectively

used to compare two contrasting facts — men preferred football, whereas women favoured tennis

used to introduce the main trends — overall, spending on all three categories increased

become twice as large — the number of users doubled between 2010 and 2020

close to but not exactly — approximately 40% of respondents

slightly less than — just under half of the total

the biggest portion of a total — housing accounted for the largest share of spending

a general pattern of decrease — a clear downward trend over the decade

a general pattern of increase — consumption showed an upward trend

in comparison to — exports were lower compared with the previous year

throughout the time shown — over the period as a whole, prices rose

become greater than something that was previously larger — by 2015, online sales had overtaken high-street sales

be at a particular level — in 2000, the figure stood at 5 million

at the beginning of a process — in the initial stage, raw materials are collected

after that — the mixture is subsequently heated

as soon as — once the leaves have dried, they are sorted

at the end of a process — in the final stage, the product is packaged

basic materials used to make products — raw materials such as clay and sand

something produced in addition to the main product — heat is a by-product of the process

a process that repeats in a cycle — the water cycle is a cyclical process

is put into a machine — the clay is fed into a mould

experience a process or change — the beans undergo roasting

has unwanted substances removed — the water is filtered to remove impurities

is removed or taken out — juice is extracted from the sugar cane

is moved to another place — the bricks are transported to building sites

be removed so something else can replace it — the trees were cut down to make way for a car park

knock down a building — the old factory was demolished

be changed for a different use — the warehouse was converted into flats

be built — a new bridge was constructed across the river

be made longer or larger — the runway was extended to the east

in a northern direction from — a car park to the north of the station

next to — the school is adjacent to the park

at the edge of a town — a retail park on the outskirts of the town

changed through new building — the waterfront was completely redeveloped

moved to a new place — the bus station was relocated to the south

the biggest or most obvious change — the most noticeable change is the loss of farmland

a path for people on foot — a footpath was added along the river

stay the same — the main road remained unchanged

examine something in detail — analyse the causes of the problem

judge the quality or importance of something — assess the impact of the policy

a way of dealing with something — a more practical approach to the problem

an abstract idea — the concept of free will

always behaving or happening the same way — consistent with earlier findings

form or make up something — women constitute half the workforce

get something from a source — many English words derive from Latin

share out or supply to people — distribute food to flood victims

come out or become known — new evidence has emerged

set up, or prove something to be true — establish a link between diet and disease

judge the value of something carefully — evaluate the effectiveness of the programme

something that influences a result — a key factor in the decline

a basic structure or system — a legal framework for data protection

possible effects or consequences — the implications of the decision for small businesses

show or suggest — the data indicate a clear upward trend

existing as a natural part of something — the risks inherent in extreme sports

a particular way of viewing things — from an economic perspective

a basic rule or belief — the principle of equal pay

enough — there is not sufficient evidence

gradually weaken — corruption undermines trust in government

found or happening over a large area — widespread support for the reform

differ or change — prices vary considerably from region to region

show that something is reasonable — it is hard to justify such high spending

make a problem worse — the drought exacerbated food shortages

make something easier — technology facilitates distance learning

born and grew up in the same place — I was born and raised in Sylhet

very close to — my flat is a stone's throw from the river

busy noise and activity — I miss the hustle and bustle of the city

relaxed and easy-going — my hometown has a laid-back atmosphere

I'm very interested in — I'm really into photography at the moment

relax after work or study — I unwind by going for a walk

an activity done for enjoyment — reading is my favourite pastime

start a new hobby or activity — I took up badminton last year

using a phone constantly — I'm glued to my phone most evenings

good at using modern technology — my younger brother is far more tech-savvy than I am

watch many episodes of a series in one go — I binge-watched the whole series over a weekend

look quickly through content on a screen — I scroll through the news on my way to work

very rarely — I go to the cinema once in a blue moon

occasionally — every now and then I cook for my family

without checking or thinking carefully — off the top of my head, I'd say about five

used before giving a frank opinion — to be honest, I'm not a big fan of social media

used to give an opinion or estimate — I'd say I spend about two hours a day online

widen my experience and knowledge — travelling has broadened my horizons

meet someone and hear their news — I catch up with old friends at weekends

time spent giving full attention to someone — I try to spend quality time with my family

someone who likes routine — I'm a creature of habit, so I eat the same breakfast every day

the answer changes according to something — it depends on the weather, really

feel excited about something coming — I'm looking forward to the weekend

stay physically healthy — I go swimming to keep fit

happy memories of the past — I have fond memories of my primary school